Orfey class destroyer (1915)

From 1910 the “Novik class” was a reaction to the results of the Russo-Japanese war, which caused a great train of reforms in the Navy, generating a new generation of large fleet destroyers. The Novik was a trailblazer leapfrogging current destroyer designs, made for “active minelaying” and protect lines of communications at long range. The design was observed in all admiralties with great interest. About fifty destroyers followed the Novik design in several classes, most surviving the revolution, civil war, still active in 1941. After the Derzki (Bespokoiny) class (nine built, extremely popular and effective in the black sea fleet) the Russian admiralty wanted some for the more competitive Baltic Fleet, which became the Orfey-class. They were modified versions of the Novik and Derzky-class but slightly larger, with triple torpedo tubes, an extra 102 mm (4 in) gun. Engels (as renamed) even tested a 305 mm (12 in) recoilless rifle in 1934. Eight were completed, one sank at the Battle of Kassar Wiek. One fought the allies during the Russian Civil War. Two were scrapped afterwards and five survivors were still active in World War II with many modifications. Three were lost on mines in 1941, two survived into the cold war. #russkiyfot #russiannavy #sovietnavy #ww1 #blackseafleet #sovietdestroyer #frunze #novik

Development

The Novik concept was spawned by the Russo-Japanese war, losses of Tsushima and lessons, which shook the admiralty to the core. Heads rolled, and the Tsar ensured the new staff would undergo a major train of reform across the Navy. Procedures, tactics were updated at the Russian Naval Academy. The ones in charge in 1909 wanted the Navy put back in shape. But the process was still ongoing as WWI broke out. One of key lessons was the lack of adequate support for Battleships in the Yellow sea in 1904 and Tsushima in 1905. It was obvious the Russian Navy needed to depart from the small designs of the past. The fleet needed larger vessels usable for reconnaissance and protection. They wanted a brand new generation of fleet destroyers.

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See WW1 Russian Destroyers.

Novik was financed by donations already 1904-1905 but was delayed due to reports and experience of the war and completely redesigned. It was to be very fast, with the most powerful torpedo broadside of eight or ten total, non(reloeadable as it was seen as a unrealistic in combat conditions, as well as a sufficient artillery to deal with scout cruisers if needed. But one core concept was to use them to lay “flying” minefields, in the path of an approaching battlefleet. A reunion in 1905 of the Marine Technical Committee (MTC) with 2nd Pacific squadron Z. P. Rozhestvensky at first led to “mine cruisers”, which became turbine destroyers. The concept was refined in the 1907 reunion and the speed was setup at 36-knot, for a multi-purpose minelayer keeping strong torpedo and artillery and useable for high seas reconnaissance and commerce raiding. Then came the final Requirements of 1908 setup by the admiralty. A. N. Krylov, I. G. Bubnov and G. F. Shlesinger work on it and the committee started to look for several shipyards as well as launching an international A tender was published to which participated several yards, Admiralty, Creighton, Nevsky and Putilov, the latter winning in 1909, in collaboration with the German company Vulkan. The resulting Novik was groundbreaking indeed and soon used as a template to fill the ranks of the Black sea and Baltic, then Pacific fleets.

Follow-ups: Derzki, Orfey, Lt. Ilin and Gavril classes.

Pobeditel

It was decided next to equip first the Black sea fleet, and the Derzki class was ordered, under the “urgent reinforcement of the Black Sea Fleet” program, notably to make due to the absence of cruisers in the Black Sea. Admiralty, Creighton & Co., Lange & Son, Metallichesky, Nevsky took part in the competition ad well as six foreign firms such as Vulkan that worked on Novik. Putilov won again, and with the help of Vulkan designed the Derzki class after the design was amdended to add a single 4-in gun, six 18-in TTs and equipped with newly ordered AEG or Parsons instead of Rateau turbines. Displacement increased to 50 tons and they lost one knot in speed.
The final design was accepted by the admiralty and construction proceeded with a number of changes at the request of the Main Directorate of Shipbuilding, delaying these, after returned from trials of Novik.

They gained a new stern capstan second compass on the bridge, observer station with internal communication on the foremasts. The final design was approved February 11, 1912, after all design refinements were sanctioned by the Naval Ministry, a contract was signed for the construction of four destroyers FY late 1912, with a cost was inferior to Novik at 2 million rubles. Baltic coast yards subcontracted the turbines to Vulkan. Nikolaev had been modernized and only six months were needed for outfitting, meeting very tight deadlines, saluted as unprecedented in Russian shipbuilding.

Next was the Baltic Fleet. For it, the Orfey class was ordered, and they were designed as an improved version of the Derzky class, a bit larger, still with two two Curtis-AEG-Vulkan steam turbines. The preliminary characteristics aimed at a modified Bespokoiny class with an armament of two 4in/60, and an amazing twelve twin 18-inches TTs. The existing Putilov Yd design for the Black Sea destroyer was duly changed and offered as the common enterprise by the Putilov Yd, Metal Works and Russo-Baltic Yd. This was accepted by the Naval Staff after double TT sets were replaced by four triple ones to avoid a blast effect from the after 4-in gun on the aftermost TT.

The orders were placed in December 1912 for 22 boats that were to be identical in appearance as the three yards decided to go on with the common working design. In August 1915 when some of the boats were fairly advanced the gun armament was enlarged by the Naval Staff simply by replacing one TT mounting with one (later 2) 4-inches/60 as a temporary measure to increase the firepower of the light forces until the S wetland class cruisers were completed. So the ships ended with nine instead of twelve torpedoes, but four guns.

The class was ordered in three groups, by yard, of 22 ships (14 completed), built at:
-Putilov Yd, Petrograd: Kapitan Belli (29.10.15), Kapitan Izylmetev (4.11.14), Kapitan Kern (27.8.15), Kapitan I Ranga Miklucha-Maklai (27.8.15), Leitenant Dubasov (9.9.16) and Leitenantn Ilin (28.11.14). BU incomplete 1923: Kapitan Konon-Zotoz, Kapitan Kroun: This was the Leitnant Ilin class (next)
-Metal Works, Petrograd: Orfey (or “Orfej”) (5.6.15), Azard (5.6.16), Dema (4.11.15), Grom (5.6.15), Letun (4.11.15), Pobeditel (5.11.14), Samson (5.6.15), Zabijaka (5.11.14), this present post.
-Russo-Baltic Yd, Reval: Gavriil (5.1.15), Konstantin 12.6.15), Vladimir (18.8.15). BU Incomplete: Mikhail, Mechislav, Sokol (next one).

These destroyers were completed during 1915-17 and they formed the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Destroyer Flotillas (renumbered 11th, 12th and 13th later on) during most of the war. Kapitan Izylmetev served with the Active Squadron in 1919, and was renamed Lenin on 31 December 1922. Kapitan I Ranga Miklucha-Maklai (renamed Spartak 18 December 1918) served with the Active Squadron and was captured off Reval by 2 British destroyers and 2 cruisers after running aground during an escape attempt on 26 December 1918, presented to Estonia in February 1919 and recommissioned as Wambola (see under Estonia). Leitenant Ilin served with the Active Squadron in 1919, being renamed Garibaldi on 3 July 1919, then Trotski 31 December 1922 and finally Voikov on 14 February 1928.

Hull Design

The hull of the Orfey class was riveted, like the Novik ad Derzki class. The architecture and structural design was standard for turbine-powered destroyers, with distinctive, graceful hull lines and a silhouette bearing many similarities to British destroyers at the time, so they were still referred as “English-type” destroyers. Orfey and her sister had a normal displacement of 1,260 metric tons (1,240 long tons) and up to 1,568 t (1,543 long tons) fully loaded. She measured 98 meters (321 ft 6 in) long overall for a beam of 9.34 meters (30 ft 8 in), and draft of 3.3 meters (9 ft 10 in). This was comparable to the Derzki, at least shey shared the same overall lenght, slightly reduced beam at 9,30 meters but draught at 3,2 m mean. The biggest changes were in armament. Instead of five twin torpedo tubes that ate a lot of space, and three guns, they went for three triple banks and four main guns. However the fourth was placed in a very uncomfortable way, very close to the other stern gun. Overall, the ships ended better armed, but to the cost of a speed loss (from 36 knots on Novik down to 31 knots for them, 34 for the previous Derzki) and a bit less range as well.

Powerplant

The Orfeys were designed to be more powerful in the same hull essentially, a bit wider and with a greater draught. They accomodated two Curtis-AEG-Vulkan steam turbines, each driving a triple bladed bronze fixed pitvh propeller. Steam wa snow produced into four more modern Normand boilers at a working pressure of 17 standard atmospheres (1,723 kPa; 250 psi). The result was a total output projected to be 32,000 metric horsepower (24,000 kW), a far better output than the Derzki. The intended contracted top speed was optimistically setup at 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph) but on trials light load, and forced draft. The reality was quite diappointing, and on sea trials, they only reached 31 knots (57 km/h; 36 mph). Their fuel oil capacity was between 159–350 t (156–344 long tons) for a range of 1,680 nautical miles (3,110 km; 1,930 mi) at 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph).

Armament

The Orfey-class originally had two 102-millimeter/60 (4-in) Pattern 1911 Obukhov guns, at the forecastle and stern, completed by two 7.62 mm (0.3 in) Maxim machine guns on pintle mounts. Their real strenght layed in an unprecedented arsenal of twelve 450-millimeter (17.7 in) torpedo tubes in six double mounts. The Naval General Staff changed this to clean up the deck and get a heavier punch, four triple mounts as they became available in 1914. Some experience, with a duel between Novik and two German destroyers in August 1915, led to swap the rearmost torpedo mount for two 102 mm guns at the stern while under construction. The latter seen from the side looked close together, and amazingly they were. They were not placed in echelon to avoid too much interference as it would ahave been advisable, all were on the centerline. This made operation of the stern guns truly problematic. Pobeditel and Zabiyaka however were completed earlier, before the change, and sported the 1914 original specification of two guns and four triple torpedo mounts. There was on the late ships one mount between the forward funnels and two mounts aft of the rear funnel. Grom and Orfey were modified while fitting out in early 1916 but they had three reload torpedoes to make for the loss of a bank. Letun, Azard, Desna, and Samson had however no reloads.

102 mm L/60 Guns

The main guns consisted in three, not four (on Novik) 102 mm (4 inches) L/60 Obukhov cannons. These 4″/60 (10.2 cm) Pattern 1911 coincided with the Novik class. They were placed in the axis, one forward and the remaining three aft, alternating with the torpedo tubes banks. They had a high-mounted pivots for good elevation, but no gun shield. Each ship stowed 150 rounds per gun.

Performances of these were as follows:
-Shell Obukhovsky 38.58 lbs. (17.5 kg) HE mod 1911
-Unitary cartridge 30 kg including the 17.5 kg shell
-Brass cartridge case containing a 7.5 kg charge
-Elevation Rate 3 degrees per second
-Train 360 degrees at 3 degrees per second
-Gun recoil 28 inches (71 cm)
-Muzzle velocity 823 m/s.
-Range at 30 degrees 16,800 yards (15,360 m).
-Rate of fire 12 rounds per minute.
More on Navweaps

These were rapid-fire guns, provided with 160 unitary artillery rounds per barrel (HE) for a grand total of 640 shells aboard. In 1941 this was increased to 810 rounds. Cartridges were stored in two artillery cellars. There was a feed system upwards using two elevators driven by electric motors (with manual backup), which was quite modern for a destroyer at the time.
Many more shells were made available on the long run as these guns were widepsread and still used in WW2: HE mod 1915 and mod 1911, FRAG mod 1915, HE mod 1907, Shrapnel, Star Shell, Diving shell (for ASW use), Incendiary shell.

In addition they had two and up to four 7.62-mm Maxim liquid-cooled machine guns installed on pedestals on the bow bridge, and upper deck aft, near the galley. Total boxed ammunition and belts totalled 810 rounds per Machine Gun.

For night fighting, these ships were equipped with a combat 60 cm Sperry searchlight, to illuminate targets. For fire control there was a single manual Barr and Strood 9-foot (base 2,745 mm) coincidence rangefinder installed on the bridge providing data. They were no longer coordinated by a single Geisler-type fire control system but now by a 2.7-meter (9 ft) Barr and Stroud rangefinder in top if the bridge (and two 60-centimeter (24 in) searchlights). They communicated data on four sets of data display of the guns with bells and howlers to signal a shot or a volley.

Torpedoes

The class was initially designed with four twin, later three triple torpedo launchers on the centerline. These were 1908 and 1912 models (45-08 and 45-12). In 1915, the 45-15 torpedo was developed, and in 1938, the 45-36N torpedo was accepted into service.

-The 45-12 torpedo, 5.58 m x 0.45 m or 18 inches diameter, weighing 810 kg, and carrying a 100 kg warhead of TNT. Range was 5 km at 30 knots. First Russian torpedo with a “wet heating” system. Designed by the Fiume plant, it was produced at Obukhov and Lessner plant.

These new triple-tube 450 mm torpedo tubes Model 12 were already above average destroyer armament in 1909, less so in 1915. On the previous design, the admiralty already wanted triple tubes, but they were dropped due to stability issues. No spare torpedoes were provided. These were Whitehead models propelled using compressed air. The tube from Putilov lacked rigidly however and needed fastening, with the impossibility of target tracking, lacking the appropriate clutch in the gear train and with a slow mechanical rotation, plus an issue in the charger shutter, never fixed.

M1912 Mines

The Orfey class were designed as “active minesweepers”, able to perform a rapid minelaying directly into the path of an underway enemy battle formation, even under fire. Their speed was still their best asset, but dropping mines at 30 knots was especially risky if the stern wake was not well managed. The risk of a premature detonation especially with contact mines was real due to turbulences. The mines werre stacked on two long rail tracks on either side of deck aft, starting at the forecastle. This made up for small 80 mines or 50 larger, dropped on sloped lips at 20° which protruded overboard by 1.5 m. However even this configuation only allowed minelaying at below 24 knots.

For ASW warfare, they were given in WW1 ten 10 depth charges of the types 4V-B or 4V-M on two five-charge racks at the stern. They were replaced in the interwar by more advanced BB-1 and BM-1, respectively 8 and 20, stored between racks, manually dropped overboard or using carts tailored to support 4 large or 5 small depth charges.

⚙ Orfey class specifications
Displacement	1,260 t (1,240 long tons) standard, 1,570 long tons (1,543 t) full load
Dimensions	98 x 9.34 x 3.3 m (321 ft 6 in x 30 ft 8 in x 9 ft 7 in)
Propulsion	2 shafts steam turbines (variable), 4 Normand boilers, 32,000 shp (24 MW)
Speed	31 knots (57 km/h; 36 mph)
Range	1,680 nmi (3,110 km; 1,930 mi) at 21 knots
Armament	4x 102 mm, 3×3 533mm TTs, 2 LMGs, 80 mines, see notes.
Crew	150

WWI Modifications

The Naval General Staff back in 1914 as the ships were laid down, completely ignored the rapid progress of aviaiton and there was no provision for anti-aircraft defense. The two Maxim MGs were intended to deter enemy’s torpedo boats and smaller ships, or for landing parties. This was remedied on 8 March 1916 when they were ordered with a 40mm/39 (1.6 in) Vickers anti-aircraft (AA) gun, the famous “pom-pom” in its first version. It was to be fitted on a platform between the rear torpedo mount and stern guns. These aft guns were then replaced on Grom and Pobeditel in 1917 by by a 63mm (2.5 in)/38 Pattern 1916 AA guns. Orfey, Zabiyaka and Azard had instead 76-millimeter (3 in) Lender AA guns. The Letun, Samson or Desna is unclear, likely they get the pompom, but Samson received in 1917 a Lender gun.

Vickers 2-pdr “pom-pom”

This enlarged machine gun fired a 2-pound (0.91 kg) shell at 300 rounds per minute over 6,300 m (6,900 yd) in ceiling at the elevation of +45°.

76 mm Lender Gun

The Lender guns had a muzzle velocity of 588 m/s (1,930 ft/s) for a range of 6,100 m (6,700 yd) at 65°. They fire a much more beefier 6.5-kilogram (14 lb) shell designed to explose at a preset altitude. Its practical rate of fire howver was down to 10–12 rounds per minute. Originally it was derived from a 76 mm divisional gun M1902 to fire in balloons. Called the “lender” it was converted as a high angle gun by FF Lender and prodyced at the Putilov plant from 1914 to 1934. The mount weighted 1,300 kg (2,900 lb). They ended on all interwar Russian cruisers as well.

63 mm/38 OSZ pattern 1916

The Pattern 1916 gun fired a 4.04-kilogram (8.9 lb) shell at a velocity of 686 m/s (2,250 ft/s) and to a range of 6,804 metres (7,441 yd) for an elevation of 75°. It had the best shell velocity performances but was still limited for AA fire but doubled well as a rapid fire anti-ship gun. The mount weighted 2,866 lbs. (1,300 kg). They were designed by OSZ early in the war with a vertical sliding-breech, but by the fall of November 1916 only twenty had been built, twenty more were started. Overall it was unsuccessful, being semi-automatic with shells having a small lethal radius. The Lender gun was considered more effective.

Interwar Modifications

Pobeditel was for example given a fully enclosed bridge in 1924, new depth charges in 1933, and eventually in 1935-37 her 63.5 mm AA gun was replaced by a 76-millimeter (3 in) Lender AA gun, and two 12.7mm (0.50 in) DShK heavy machine guns, as well as two 45mm (1.8 in) 21-K AA guns. For Artem, for example, in 1933 she gained a 45-millimetre (1.8 in) 21-K AA gun, three reload torpedoes, and ten 165-kilogram (364 lb) B-1 and fifteen 41-kilogram (90 lb) M-1 depth charges. In 1938 her 7.62 mm machine guns were replaced by 12.7-millimetre (0.50 in) DShK heavy machine guns. Displacement rose to about 1,700 t (1,700 long tons), draft to 3.8 m (12 ft 6 in) at full load, crew to approx. 180 men. For Stalin, in 1933-36 she received a new 3-meter (9 ft 10 in) DM-3 telemeter for fire control.

WW2 Modifications

It was limited for the survivors to the addition of 37mm (1.5 in) 70-K AA guns and 20 mm Oerlikon AA guns that could be obtained from the allies for the ships in service in the Northern Fleet, participating to the convoys battles of 1943-45. In some cases, the forecastle or bow was reinforced to deal with ice as well. As for sensors, only one vessel, Uritski ex-Zabiyaka a British Type 128 ASDIC was obtained and installed. Even a radar, the Type 291W search radar. But she was the exception. The sole member of her class transferred in the Pacific, Stalin, she had her engines overhauled in 1942-43, and her armament modernized, keeping her main guns and TTs but loosing her 75 mm AA Lender gun and Maxim LMGs, for two 45-millimeter (1.8 in) 21-K AA guns, two 37-millimeter (1.5 in) 70-K AA guns, three 12.7mm DShK heavy machine guns, and the Tamir-5 sonar system. Standard displacement jumped to 1,437 t (1,414 long tons) and 1,515 t (1,491 long tons) at normal load, draft rose to 3.2 m (10 ft 6 in). Range fell to 1,700 nmi (3,100 km; 2,000 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Complement increased to 167 officers and men.

Livery and general appearance:

Graded system on Zabiyaka in 1916

Northern Camouflage for Uritskiy in 1944.
Grey was initially present on the fan-ejectors capstan, artillery, projectors, and generally all vertical surfaced for the hull above the waterline, notably the superstructure, mast, yard, funnels and everythong on deck. Painted in black were the Hall anchor, deck hawse, bollards, bitteng, standing rigging, chimney caps, mine rails, ladder brackets, bale slats, Legof stoppers and chain stop frames, anchor tubes and in white lifebuoy (white and red) as smaller morse spotlights. The hull below the waterline was red, as the propeller shafts and their brackets and rudder. The running rigging was in yellow. The deck was in wood the propellers with in bronze as the twin torpedo tubes and magnetic compass caps. Side and stern inscription, and sights for 102 mm guns were in polish metal and the state emblem was in copper as these were hand-made by sculptors.

For the ships still in Soviet service, the base medium grey was kept, until changed to dark grey in the 1930s, a new white line was painted as a transition between the grey and black waterline. The bridge was fully enclosed and painted grey. All previous items in polish metal above the waterline were painted dark or medium grey. The ornaments were replaced by a single red star in stemped metal installed at the poop. Some elements like tarpaulins and barrier canvas were in white. Anchors and other elements were still in black. Then came rare camouflages in WW2, like on Uritskiy, in that case, the northern sea pattern made of straight lines.

The Orfey class in service

Pobiditel/Pobeditel (later Volodarsky) was laid down in November 1913 at Metal Works in Petrograd, launched on 23 October 1914. She towed to Helsinki for fitting out and her sea trials started on 29 August. She was completed and commissioned in 25 October 1915. She made two sorties in the Baltic, trying to intercept German supplies of Swedish iron ore. She laid two minefields in their expected path, just before the Gulf of Finland was iced over. She made a sortie with Novik and her sister Zabiyaka to lay 150 mines off the Latvian coast (Ventspils-Lyserort area) on 16 December. A day later their mines claimed the German destroyer SMS V191. She was started however to sink but her men were rescued by the light cruiser SMS Bremen, when she struck two mines herself and sank rapidly. The same minefield would also sink SMS S177 on 23 December. After an engagement of Novik and two German destroyers in August 1915, the Naval General Staff decided to rearm all destroyers. Pobeditel had this refit when was refitting in early 1916. Next she made nine sorties in the Baltic. In thee night of 13 June 1916, with Grom and Novik she was searching for a German iron ore convoy along the Swedish coast, and eventually spotted ten freighters escorted by four auxiliary patrol boats, off Häfringe Island. The freighters fled for Swedish waters. The escorts protected that manoeuver by engaging the Russians. But these were reconverted covilia ships that stood little chance. The auxiliary cruiser Hermann was sunk. However the Russian squadron refused to close further believing they were far stronger. All freighters escaped. There was another of such action on 29/30 June. Pobeditel, Grom and Orfey were near Bråviken in thick fog when stumbling upon eight German destroyers. They quickly retreated towards the cruisers Gromoboi and Diana. The Germans in hot pursuit in turn were surprised by the cruisers, bu they launched all their torpedoes, which missed, and retreated. There were no casualties.

Next, Orfey was part of a force of five destroyers laying 200 mines off Steinort in East Prussia (modern Gleźnowo, Poland) on the night of 18/19 October. It claimed SS General Kutuzov, salvaged and captured by the Germans in Ventspils (Latvia), then the minesweeper T 64, while clearing the minefield. Pobeditel had another refit in early 1917, with her forecastle strengthened, 63-mm (2.5 in) AA gun aft of the stern guns replacing her pompom. She took part i her largest surface engagement, the Battle of Kassar Wiek, west of Moon Sound, between Muhu, Saaremaa, and Hiiumaa Islands. After the fall of Riga, the Germans planned amphibious landings on the West Estonian Archipelago (Operation Albion)to deny Moon Sound to the Russians and capture Muhu and Saaremaa to threaten Russian supply lines through the Gulf of Riga. Kassar Wiek was on the the shallow western portion of Moon Sound, north of the Gulf of Riga and into the Soela Strait separating Saaremaa and Hiiuma. The Russian fleet was attempting to defend Soela Strait from the German Baltic Fleet and there were inconclusive engagements on 12 and 13 October. Kommodore Paul Heinrich then decided to bait Russian destroyers into the western entrance to the strait, positioning Kaiser out of sight. Rear Admiral Mikhail Bakhirev tried to force the entrance on 14 October with Pobeditel, Zabiyaka, Grom, Konstantin and the gunboat Khrabry. They were posted on east end of the strait, sitting at anchor, waiting for the Germans to move. Heinrich waited until midday when ready and ordered Kaiser to fire at them around 11:45. The first salvo hit Grom, detonated. She was dead in the water and Khabry moved to assist and towing her to safety.

The others moved out of range and laid smoke screens. But once German destroyers and torpedo boats entered the strait and split into two forces in an envelopment, the Russian being in a line east of Khabry and Grom, firing as far as 11,000–12,000 yards (10,000–11,000 m) around 1321, outside the range of the German guns, with little effect. The Russian destroyers then turned northeast, presenting their sterns to the oncoming Germans and a running battle began at a range of 10,400 yards (9,500 m). Then all, including Grom and Khabry engaged the southern group and damaged SMS G103. Return fire hit Zabiyaka twice. They turned east and then around to lay another smoke screen. Pobeditel received a hit at the stern. The towline broke at 13:45, Pobeditel being blamed as she was too close to Khabry, overstressing the towline by a venturi effect. Khabry was ordered to abandon the towing and all left Grom and retreated to the east. The Germans boarded Grom, captured her mine charts and logboo, a major blow to Russian intel. SMS B98 wanted to tow her as she was still burning but she sank at 15:10. The Russians were reinforced by seven destroyers, notably Novik and Samson at 15:20, but Rear-Admiral Stark declined to attack, prefeerign to shell them at long range around 15:35. Albeit accurate, they scored no hits were and reterated as dusk approached. Pobeditel herself depleted her magazines, firing 400 shells. She took refuge in Rohuküla (Estonia) and for some repairs. This was her last action under the Russian Imperial Flag.

After arriving in Helsinki for full repairs, her crew mutinied, joined the Bolsheviks and sailed to Petrograd on 29 October. They helped to supress the Kerensky–Krasnov uprising and she later returned to Helsinki before the ice came out. The Finnish Civil War turned wary as the Germans intervened in April 1918, the troops marching on Helsinki. The Baltic Fleet was ordered to evacuate the port, Pobeditel in the last echelon to depart, but towed to Kronstadt on 10-16 April 1918 through pack ice. Placed in the mothballs in October, in reserve in November 1919 but recommissioned on 21 April 1921, renamed “Volodarsky” on 31 December 1922. She was refitted in 1923–1924 (bridge enclosed notably). She collided with Voykov on 6 September 1929, her bow needed repairs, cannibalizing her sister Orfey. In 1933 she was upgraded again and received ten 165 Kgs (364 lb) B-1 and fifteen 41 Kgs (90 lb) M-1 depth charges. She visited Gdynia in Poland by September 1934 and went in another modernization until 1937.

In 1939, as Stalin had decided to attack Poland, she unsuccessfully searched for Polish submarines in the Gulf of Finland on 19-21 September. The Winter War from 30 November saw her engaging Finnish coastal-defense positions at Saarenpää (Beryozovye Islands) as well as on 9–10 and 18–19 December. The 3rd Destroyer Division (Karl Marx, Volodarsky (her), Artem and Engels were relocated at the newly captured Hanko on 20 March 1940. In June 1941, the 3rd Destroyer Division was moved to Tallinn and on 22/23 June, Volodarsky, Artem and Karl Marx mined the entrance of the Gulf of Finland and were part of the covering force for minelayers engaged between Hanko and Osmussuaari. Volodarsky escorted the badly damaged cruiser Maxim Gorky on 24–25 June and on the 26th laid another minefield, she escorted the cruiser to Kronstadt on the 27th. She also escorted the battleship Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya from Tallinn to Kronstadt on 1 July. On 27/28 August, Volodarsky, Artem and Kalinin were in the evacuation rear guard from Tallinn to Kronstadt, providing covering fire during. Volodarsky was the last to leave at 16:00, only to struck a mine of the Juminda barrage at 23:50 the same dauy, sinking wih all hands, struck on 10 September 1941.

Zabiyaka (later Uritski) was laid down on 9 November 1913, launched like Pobiditel on 23 October 1914. Sea trials commenced on 2 October 1915. She was commissioned eventually on 19 November. Zabiyaka made two sorties in Baltic to stop the Swedish iron ore supply to Germany, before the Gulf of Finland was iced over. With Novik and Pobeditel she laid 150 mines between Ventspils and Lyserort on 16 December (see above) claiming V191, S177 and SMS Bremen. On 6 January 1916 she did the same off Steinort in Germany (modern Gleźnowo in Poland) but herself struck a mine enroute and was severely damaged (12 crewmen Kia, 9 wounded, several compartments flooded, propeller shafts bend, steering gear destroyed). The mission was cancelled. Novik towed her to Tallinn for repairs until August. Her armamament was changed with one triple TT mount between the forward funnels, two mounts aft of the rear funnel, one gun on the forecastle, three at the stern, aft of the torpedo tubes, 2-pdr AA on platform between the rear torpedo moun/stern guns. Completed and en route to Helsinki on 22 August, she struck rocks due to a navigational error. Her rudder was damaged, as the right propeller and shaft and she ended under repair until mid-1917. Her 2-pdr AA was replaced by a 76 mm (3 in) Lender gun in 1917.

After the fall of Riga in September 1916, the Germans planned Operation Albion, capturing Muhu and Saaremaa. Kassar Wiek were in the shallow western portion of Moon Sound, between Saarema, Muhu, and Hiiumaa north of the Gulf of Riga, separated by the Soela Strait, in which the action took place, starting on 12 October. Zabiyaka at the time was in 1st Destroyer Division of the Naval Forces of the Gulf of Riga. After distant clashes on 12 and 13 October Commodore Paul Heinrich decided to bait the Russians into the western entrance. Another attempt was made to force the entrance on 14 October with four destroyers inc. Zabiyaka, Grom, Pobeditel, Konstantin and a gunboat (see above), laying at anchor further in, and they were fired upon by SMS Kaiser. Grom exploded, dead in the water, towed out by Khabry, the others skidaddled behind smoke screens. Heinrich then sent hos DDs and TBs to surround the Russians, splitting forces east of Khabry and Grom. The latter opened fire at 10,000–11,000 m without effect. Long story short, they turned northeast creating a running battle at 9,500 m, all firing on the German southern group, damaging G103. Zabiyaka was hit in the stern (one gun damages, 5 killed, 4 wounded. The Russians turned east then turnied around and Konstantin layed another smoke screen. The towline broke and Grom was abandoned, after evacuation. They retreated to the east. Rear-Admiral G. K. Stark later decided to bombard the Germans at long distance, but visibility worsened. In all, Zabiyaka spent 80 shells. This was her last major action of the war. The revolution happened later.

She returned to Helsinki for repairs, her crew joining the Bolsheviks and she sailed to Petrograd on 25 October, suppressing the Kerensky–Krasnov uprising, and back to Helsinki before the Gulf of Finland iced over. When German troops threatened Helsinki and the Baltic Fleet she evacuated in last echelon, towed to Kronstadt on 10-16 April 1918 and assigned to the Naval Forces of the Neva and Lake Ladoga on 16 May. Then in reserve by October, reactivated on 10 December 1919, refitted from June 1920 to January 1922, assigned to the Baltic Fleet on 21 April 1921, renamed Uritsky on 31 December 1922, modernized from 23 July 1923 to 3 September 1924 and from 26 October 1927 to 2 September 1929. She was transferred to the White Sea Canal in May–June 1933, reassigned to the Northern Flotilla, Polyarny, Murmansk, from November 1935 onwards. Uritsky was modernized from 15 October 1938 to 10 March 1941 at Krasnaya Kuznitsa Shipyard, Arkhangelsk. After Operation Barbarossa commenced in July 1941, the Germans launched Operation Platinum Fox and Finland declared war on 26 June, for a final drive on Murmansk. The offensive started on 29 June, the Rybachy Peninsula was captured. They were hampered however by the naval gunfire support from Uritsky and Valerian Kuybyshev on 30 June. Then Ju 87 Stuka of IV. Gruppe/Lehrgeschwader 1 attacked them over several days, but unsuccessful. In late August she escorted the first British supply convoy to Arkhangelsk. On 15 September she laid 45 mines near the Rybachy Peninsula. From 11 November to June 1942 she was refitted to deal with ice, reinforced by two more 37mm (1.5 in) 70-K AA guns and one 76 mm Lender AA gun.

By mid-September, Uritsky escorted Convoys QP 14 and PQ 18. She had another refit from 29 September to 8 November. She rescued 11 survivors of Sokrushitelny badly damaged by a storm on 20 November. She had another refit from December 1942 to February 1943, notably a British Type 128 ASDIC, and received two extra 20mm Oerlikon guns, and a twin mount two 13 mm DsHk HMG. She esorted Convoy JW 53 and in March-May, escortd US freighters from Arkhangelsk to Murmansk. In late June she escorted Soviet icebreakers to the Kara Strait. On 5–7 July, she escorted a British tanker from Arkhangelsk to Murmansk. She was refitted from 26 November 1943 to 30 May 1944 and obtained two more K-70 guns and received a Type 291W search radar. She had another escort mission from Murmansk to Arkhangelsk on 29 June–1 July and was escort commander to Arkhangelsk on 20–31 August. Next another convoy from Molotovsk and Murmansk (17 Allied ships) to Convoy RA 61. On 1 December, another convoy for Murmansk. Four days later, Convoy JW 62, then Convoy KB 36 Murmansk-Archangelsk 15–17 December, Convoy BK 41 reverse 3–5 January 1945. 20 January Convoy KP 1 Kola Inlet-Liinakhamari. 5 February Convoy BK 2 Arkhangelsk-Murmansk. Then Convoy JW 64 for Arkhangelsk. After this, Convoy RA 65 Arkhangelsk-Barents Sea 21-24 March and Convoy JW 66 from 25 April 1945 to Murmansk. She was disarmed on 6 March 1951 and renamed “Reut”, converted into a training ship. On 17 August she was stricken, used in a nuclear testing on 21 September 1955 off Novaya Zemlya.

Orfey was laid down on 23 October 1914, launched on 5 June 1915. Her sea trials started on 9 December 1915. She was towed to Helsinki for fitting out. She received a 40-mm pompom AA gun fitted on a platform between the rear torpedo mount and stern guns on 8 March 1916. She was commissioned on 4 May 1916. She made seven sorties in the Baltic Sea to intercept German iron ore supplies from Sweden. Some with minefields, before the Gulf of Finland froze over. In the night of 29/30 June, Orfey, Pobeditel and Grom looked for a German convoy off the Swedish coast near Bråviken in thick fog when stumbling upon eight German destroyers. They retreated back towards Gromoboi and Diana. German torpedoes missed and they retreated. She ran aground on 22 August (flooded compartments) and has to be lightened before being pulled off, towed to Helsinki for repairs. Next she took part in a minelayong (200 mines) off Steinort on 18/19 October. It claimed the merchantman SS General Kutuzov, and minesweeper T 64. Orfey was refitted in the winter of 1916–1917, forecastle strengthened to go through ice. In 1917 she received an extra 76 mm Lender AA gun aft of the stern guns, but she struck a mine in November 1917, severely damaging her turbines, propeller shafts. She was towed back to Helsinki.

Her crew joined the Bolsheviks in October but she remained icebound in Helsinki when the Germans decided to intervene in the Finnish Civil War from April 1918, with troops soon encircling Helsinki. Orfey evacuated in the last echelon, towed to Kronstadt on 10-16 April then placed in reserve. She was briefly recommissioned on 21 April 1921, disarmed, converted into a training ship on 31 May 1922. Her bow was partially displantled in late 1929 to repair Volodarski and she was stricken on 28 January 1931.

Grom was laid down in November 1913, launched on 15 June 1915 and commissioned on 4 May 1916. Grom was towed to Helsinki (Grand Duchy of Finland) for fitting out in November, sea trials started on 9 December 1915. She made six sorties in the Baltic (Swedish iron ore route), see above. On eof these, in the night of 13/14 May with Rear Admiral Alexander Kolchak aboard with Pobeditel and Novik she looked for German iron ore convoys, found one of nine ore carriers escorted by the auxiliary cruiser Hermann plus three smaller ships near Häfringe Island. The Russians fired warning shots, Hermann immediately launched a signal rocket sending the cargo ships back to Swedish territorial waters, her escorts moved to lay a smoke screen. A artillery duel started at 23:38, but the destroyers failed to close as they misidentified the Hermann for a cruiser. But they did eventually and Grom finished off Hermann with torpedoes at 00:15, albeit the convoy had escaped. Another was in the night of 29/30 June. Pobeditel led Grom and Orfey near Bråviken in thick fog (see above). The clash with 8 German Destroyers was brief and inconclusive afteer the Russians took refuge close to Gromoboi and Diana. Grom had a refit in early 1917, she gained a 63 mm (2.5 in) AA gun.

She also took part in the Battle of Kassar Wiek, well explained above. From October, Grom had been assigned to the 1st Destroyer Division, Gulf of Riga. On 12 October, Grom and others repulsed German forces trying forcing the passage in the Soela Strait. Same on 13 October by Grom, Novik and Razyashchy. They were engaged that day by SMS Emden from 14,000 m (15,000 yd), forcing the Russians to retreat out of range. Grom had her radio antenna damaged by Emden. A Russian night attempt to lay a minefield across the strait failed when the crew of the minelayer mutinied. On 12 and 13 October, Commodore Paul Heinrich decided to bait the Russian destroyers into the west entrance. When it was time, her ordered the battleship Kaiser, out of sight, to fire, leaving Rear Admiral Mikhail Bakhirev flat-footed when Grom, Zabiyaka and Pobeditel, Konstantin and Khrabry at the east end sat at anchor, at 11:45. The third salvo hit Grom about 11:55 and detonated beneath her. Her main and auxiliary steam lines between boilers and turbines were severed and she ended dead in the water. The crew had to put up also a fire. 7 were killed, 6 wounded and she started to sink. Khabry moved to assist, towing her to safety. The other destroyers moved out of range and laid several smoke screens.

The Germans then arrived and split forces to cut their retreat, and notably they formed a line east of Khabry and Grom, opening fire at 10,000–11,000 m around 13:21. The Russian destroyers turned northeast and this ended as a running battle at 9,500 m against the German southern group, hitting SMS G103. Zabiyaka was hit in the stern. The Russians turned east and then around, Konstantin laying smoke. Pobeditel was also damaged in the stern. The towline broke however about 13:40 as Pobeditel passed by (too close). Khabry was unable to re-establish the tow under fire so Grom had to be evacuted, hit in the stern by a 10.5 cm (4.1 in) shell from V100 at 13:45, starting another fire. Khabry abandoned Grom, hit the destroyer to scuttle her but failed. She was forced to retreat. Grom was left for dead and she was indeed on fire and listing to port when B98 boarded her. This was a disaster for the allies as the Germans found her mine charts and logbook. Grom capsized and sank about 15:10.

Letun was laid down on November 1914, launched on 5 October 1915. She had her sea trials began on 16 May 1916, and commissoned on 11 July 1916 after being fitted out at Helskinki. She made six sorties into the Baltic (Swedish iron ore route). On 25 October, her stern struck a mine, near the island of Aegna, Bay of Tallinn. The detonation torn open the stern, derailed her rudder, broke both propeller shafts, flooded every compartment in the engine room, all the way aft. She survived still, thanks to her crew working on patching up what they could and she was towed to Tallinn for emergency repairs, then completed in Helsinki. She joined the Bolsheviks during the October Revolution, stationed on Helsinki by late 1917. In early 1918, icebound she was threatened by the Germans which started an offensive in April 1918, troops marching on Helsinki. The Baltic Fleet was ordered to evacuate and Letun was in the last echelon, towed to Kronstadt 10-16 April in what was called the “Ice Cruise”. Placed in reserve upon arrival she was briefly recommissioned on 21 April 1921 but the damage gad been such that the Bolsheviks had her instead disarmed and stricken on 31 May 1922, her hull kept for cannibalization, helping her sisters to be repaired. When completely stripped off she was aat last sold for scrap on 25 September 1927.

Desna was laid down on 15 June 1915, launched on 22 October 1915 and commissioned on 12 August 1916. For the Baltic Fleet, she made six sorties against the German iron ore route. She took part in the minelaying operation off the coast of Steinort on 18/19 October. She took part also in the Battle of Kassar Wiek (see above). In October she was part of the 2nd Destroyer Division, Gulf of Riga. On 12 October a powerful German naval forces passed by the Soela Strait into Kassar Wiek to support troops attacking the Russian fortifications between Saaremaa and Muhu. They stumbled upon the gunboat Grozyashchy and destroyers General Kondratenko and Pogranichnik on patrol there. There were artillery exchanges and smoke screens lais, Grozyashchy being hit three times and the Germans disengaged. Desna only played a minor role in the inconclusive fight on 15 October, deployed as a reinforcement in the afternoon. She was not present either at the Battle of Moon Sound on 17 October. Her crew in October 1917 rallied to the Bolsheviks. She was icebound in Helsinki when the Germans intervened in the Finnish Civil War and when evacuating the citty in the “ice cruise” she was one of the last. She was towed to Kronstadt on 10-16 April 1918 like her sister, then placed in reserve in October, only reactivated a year later in December 1919. She had a long refit in 1922–1924 and was renamed Engels on 31 December 1922.

Refitted in 1932, she received a 45-millimeter (1.8 in) 21-K AA gun and three reload torpedoes and ten 165 kgs (364 lb) B-1 and fifteen 41 kgs (90 lb) M-1 depth charges in 1933. In September 1934, she became a test ship for a 305-millimeter (12 in) recoilless rifle, designed by Leonid Kurchevsky. This was for a short time, as the device was judged too short range and inncurate for practical use and was removed. In 1939, before even the winter war, she took part in operations against Poland, unsuccessfully searching for Polish submarines in the Gulf of Finland 19-21 September. Then on 30 November, she shelled Finnish coastal-defense positions at Saarenpää Island on 9–10 and 18–19 December. She however ran aground on Gogland Island on 16 January 1940 and her hull badly damaged by rocks. She was refloated four days later, towed to Tallinn for long repairs. She then became the flotilla leader of the 1st Submarine Brigade. In June 1941, Engels was transferred to the 3rd Destroyer Division, and laid a minefield in the Irben Strait on 26 June, towing the destroyer Storozhevoy to Kuressaare in Saaremaa, after she was torpedoed by German S-boat. She assisted laying more minefields in the Irben Strait on 3 and 6 July and took part in the Gulf of Riga campaign in July. She took part in a failed interception of a German convoy advancing on Riga on 12–13 July. On 7 August she went under attack by Stukas. One near-miss knocked out one turbine, punctured her hull. She was sent back to Tallinn for repairs. During an evacuation convoy from Tallinn to Kronstadt, only partially repaired, she struck two mines, and sank on 24 August, but most of her crew was rescued.

Azard was laid dwon in July 1915, launched on 23 May 1916 and commissioned on 10 October 1916. She was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Division, Baltic Fleet, on commissioning. She was employed on screening, convoy escort and patrol, missing the engagements of her sisters, but the combat readiness dropped after the February Revolution, so the Naval General Staff avoided planning any offensive into the Baltic in 1917. During that time she had a “pompom” replaced by a 76mm Lender gun. Azard’s crew sided indeed with the Bolsheviks in October. By March 1918, Germany landed a division reinforcing the Finnish White forces and the combined advance on Helsingfors (Helsinki) forced the Baltic Fleet to evacuate, while still-ice bound. Azard was part of the last echelon departing on 10-16 April but was damaged by ice during the voyage and had to be repaired on arrival.

As the Russian Civil War flared up, from 4–24 December she shelled German and Estonian forces near Aseri and Kunda (Estonia). Fyodor Raskolnikov (Commissar of the Baltic Flee) planned an attack on British naval forces at Reva on 25 December, with Azard, Spartak and Avtroil, backd up by the cruiser Oleg and the pre-dreadnought Andrei Pervozvanny in distant support. Azard was out of fuel however, Avtroil had mechanical problems, so Spartak attacked Reval alone, was caught by the British destroyers Vendetta, Vortigern and Wakeful, ran aground and surrendered. On 29 May 1919, Azard escorted six minesweepers when they were spotted and attacked by the British submarine L16. Two torpedoes missed. Later the same happened from the submarine E27. The British sent three light cruisers, six destroyers into the Gulf of Finland, and they arrived off Seskar on 30 May. Azard escorted minesweepers with Petropavlovsk as distant cover when meeting the destroyer Walker. Azard opened fire but soon sppotted the remainder of the British force and retreated towards Petropavlovsk, behind a minefield (one of the rare example of “flying minefield”, a tactical application throught of for the Novik class in the frst place). Between them and coastal artillery the British broke off. Walker was hit twice. On 2 June 1919, Azard and Gavriil clashed against Vivacious and Voyager across a minefield and both sides retreated. Another such fights occured on 4 June against Versatile, Vivacious and Walker. Petropavlovsk was again in distant support. The British submarine L55 failed a torpedo attack but accidentally surfaced after it and the destroyers opened fire. L55 attempted to dive, but struck a mine and sank with all hands. On 21 October 1919, Azard and Gavriil, Konstantin and Svoboda sailed from Kronstadt to lay a minefield in Koporye Bay, to block the British to support Estonian troops advancing on Petrograd. However the latter already planned for it and laid a minefield. Gavriil, leading, struck one mine at 05:48 and sank after 20 minutes. Konstantin and Svoboda followed within minutes, Azard, closing the ban, escaped unharmed. 25 men were rescued between the three after she sent her boats.

Azard was renamed Zinoviev on 31 December 1922 and started a major refit in 1923–1924. Her new CO was Gordey Levchenko (future Admiral) from April 1928 to May 1929, and she was renamed Artem on 27 November 1928, then modernized in 1933, and 1938. In 1939 she looked for Polish submarines in the Gulf of Finland on 19-21 September and in the Winter War she shelled Finnish coastal-defense positions at Saarenpää Island on 9–10 and 18–19 December. Transferred to the 3rd Destroyer Division (Karl Marx, Artem, Volodarsky, Engels) she was based in Hanko (Finland) on 20 March 1940. In 1941 she became flotilla leader, 2nd Submarine Brigade. On 22 June, she returned to the 3rd Destroyer Division. She took part in minelaying operations in the Gulf of Finland from Tallinn, with the Leningrad and Minsk, Karl Marx, Volodarsky, minelayers Marti and Ural. Artem, Volodarsky and Karl Marx were the covering force for minelayers between Hanko and Osmussuaari. Artem escorted the badly damaged Maxim Gorky to Tallinn on 24–25 June. She was in another minelaying missions on 26 June. She escorted Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya to Kronstadt on 1 July. In August she became flotilla leader, DesDiv 3. On 2 August she clashed with S-55 and S-58 in the Gulf of Riga. On 21 August with Surovy she attacked German transports in the Irben Strait. Tallinn was later surrounded by German troops and the evacuation started on 27 August, 190 ships split between four convoys for Kronstadt. On 27/28 August, Artem, Volodarsky and Kalinin were in the rear guard, providing covering fire as troops boardeded the last transports, leaving at 16:00. Artem took aboard 250 evacuees. Kalinin struck a mine of the Juminda barrage, Artem, came in rescue but hit a mine in turn. It broke her back. She sank with all hands.

Samson was laid down on 30 July 1915, launched on 23 May 1915 and completed on 21 November 1916. After the fall of Riga by September 1916, the Germans prepared Operation Albion, denying Moon Sound to the Imperial Russian Navy and capture Muhu and Saaremaa. Thus, Samson ended in the battle Kassar Wiek (see above). She was sent later with Leytenant Ilin and the gunboat Grozyashchy to reinforce the defenders and with the gunboat Khivinets, destroyers Moskvitianin and Vsadnik she patrolled the eastern portion of Kassar Wiek that night on 15 October. The following day they attacked the two forwardmost German destroyers and were forced to withdraw where others moved forward. The Germans swept the minefield laid by the Russians and sent the hospital ship Viola forward to rceive men from the land fighting. The Russians thought she was a troopship, opened fire frm 12,000 m at 12:14 with little result but the Germans return fire at 10,000 m was way more effective. Avtroil was badly damaged, and the Russians had to retreat. That was the last battle for Samson under Russian Imperial flag.

Back in Helsinki in Octber 1917 Samson’s crew joined the Bolsheviks, sailed to Petrograd on 25 October (Kerensky–Krasnov uprising) and back to Helsinki, then forced to evacuate in April 1918 in the last echelon, towed to Kronstadt. She was in long-term storage here from October 1918, full reserve in November 1919, recommissioned on 21 April 1921, renamed Stalin on 31 December 1922, refitted in 1925–1926. She visited Oslo in August 1930. She had another modernization in 1933-1936. On 2 July 1936 she was transferred via the White Sea Canal to the Northern Sea and proceded to the east, arriving at Vladivostok on 17 October, assigned to the Pacific Fleet. Stalin escorted Soviet troopships during the Battle of Lake Khasan, August 1938. She became a training ship in 1940, was reassigned to the 4th Submarine Brigade in Vladivostok in January 1941. Hull and boilers were poor shape and repairs started from December 1941 to August 1943 as well as her her armament was modernized to the Project 15 standard (see above). She resumed her missions and had another refit in January-August 1945, reconfigured as a training ship, playing no part in the Russian offensive against Japan. On 17 December 1946 she was decommissioned, disarmed, converted as stationary training ship as “Samson”. She became the barracks ship PKZ-37 on 16 June 1951 and on 26 November 1953, PKZ-52. On 30 May 1956 she was stricken and BU from 28 August in Vladivostok.

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Books

Chernyshov, A. A. “Noviks.” The Best Destroyers of the Russian Imperial Fleet. Moscow: Collection, Yauza, EKSMO, 2007
Verstyuk, A. N., Gordeev, S. Yu. Ships of the Mine Divisions. From “Novik” to “Gogland”. Moscow: Voennaya kniga, 2006
Zablotsky, V. P., Levitsky, V. A. The First “Noviks” of the Black Sea Fleet. Orfeyy-class Destroyers // Maritime Campaign: Journal. Moscow, 2008.
Breyer, Siegfried (1992). Soviet Warship Development: Volume 1: 1917–1937. London: Conway Maritime Press.
Budzbon, Przemysław (1985). “Russia”. In Gray, Randal (ed.). Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships 1906–1921. NIP
Budzbon, Przemysław (1980). “Soviet Union”. In Chesneau, Roger (ed.). Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships 1922–1946.
Budzbon, Przemysław; Radziemski, Jan & Twardowski, Marek (2022). Warships of the Soviet Fleets 1939–1945. Vol. I NIP
Campbell, John (1985). Naval Weapons of World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press.
Friedman, Norman (2011). Naval Weapons of World War One: Guns, Torpedoes, Mines and ASW Weapons of All Nations. Seaforth Publishing.
Halpern, Paul G. (1994). A Naval History of World War I. NIP
Hill, Alexander (2018). Soviet Destroyers of World War II. New Vanguard. Vol. 256. Osprey Publishing.
Rohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two NIP
Watts, Anthony J. (1990). The Imperial Russian Navy. London: Arms and Armour.

Links

navypedia.org
kchf.ru
militaryfactory.com
ru.wikipedia.org/
Derzky-class_destroyer
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